The Triad of Instructional Design: Comparing Impacts on EFL Speaking Proficiency and Engagement

Akbari, Z. (2015). Current challenges in teaching/learning English for EFL learners: The case of junior high school and high school. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199, 394-401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.524 

Al-khresheh, M. H., Orak, S. D., & Alruwaili, S. (2025). The development of language proficiency through global skills enhancement using Web 2.0 tools in university EFL contexts: A mixed-methods quasi-experimental study. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12, Article 5210. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05210-2

Allan, D. (2004). Oxford Placement Test 2: Test Pack. Oxford University Press.

Alsubaie, M. A. (2016). Curriculum development: Teacher involvement in curriculum development. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(9), 106–119.

Alvarez, C., & Win, C. C. (2022). Forward or backward design in teaching English as a foreign language: A pilot study. Working Papers in Language Pedagogy, 17(2), 90–105.          https://doi.og/10.61425/wplp.2022.17.90.105  

Alvarez, C., Mirnic, B., dos Santos, J. C., & Pineda, T. G. (2024). Backward design and authentic performance tasks to foster English skills: Perspectives of Hungarian teacher candidates. Journal of Pedagogical Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202427891  

Ambawani, S., Astasari, I., & Rukiati, E. (2025). Overcoming barriers to EFL speaking proficiency: A multidimensional analysis of language learning challenges. Journal of English in Academic and Professional Communication, 11(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.25047/jeapco.v11i1.5769

Aramaki, T. (2025). Task-supported and task-based language teaching and their effects on EFL speaking proficiency. Journal of Educational Research, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2025.2548577   

Beaton, D. E., Bombardier, C., Guillemin, F., & Ferraz, M. B. (2001). Guidelines for the process of cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures. Spine, 25(24), 3186–3191. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007632-200012150-00014

Biggs, J. (2003). Teaching for quality learning at university: What the student does (2nd ed.). Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.

Boud, D., & Solomon, N. (2001). Work-based learning: A new higher education? Routledge.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education.

Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Oxford University Press.

Bulusan, F. (2024). An emerging instructional materials design model for English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL) senior high school contexts. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2024.2431890

Bygate, M. (2009). Speaking (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Celce-Murcia, M. (2001). Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Comings, J., Garner, B., & Smith, C. (Eds.). (2023). Review of adult learning and literacy, volume 5: Connecting research, policy, and practice: A project of the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003417958  

Dasgupta, T. (2015). Examining fluency in second language speaking from the speaker’s perspective: A cognitive approach. Paper presented at the International Conference 2017: Fluency and Disfluency Across Languages and Language Varieties, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior.  Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7

Dornyei, Z., & Otto, I. (1998). Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation. Working Papers in Applied Linguistics, Thames Valley University, 4, 43-69.

Ebrahimzadeh, Y., & Ebadi, S. (2025). An exploration into the development of Iranian EFL learners’ oral fluency through online dynamic assessment: A case study. Cogent Education, 12(1), https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2549788

Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford University Press.

Ellis, R. (2005). Principles of instructed language learning. System, 33(2), 209-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2004.12.006

Fillmore, C. J. (1979). On fluency. In C. J. Fillmore, D. Kempler, & W. S.-Y. Wang (Eds.), Individual differences in language ability and language behavior (pp. 85–101). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-255950-1.50012-3

Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59–109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059

Fries, C. C. (1945). Teaching English as a foreign language or second language. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Gan, Z. (2012). Understanding L2 speaking problems: Implications for ESL curriculum development. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 37(1), 43–59. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2012v37n1.4 

Gass, S. M., & Selinker, L. (2001). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hamouda, A. (2016). The Impact of Task-Based Instruction on Developing Saudi University EFL Students’ English Speaking Skills. Arab World English Journal. 32(2), 1–80. https://doi.org/10.21608/MFES.2016.106831

Haque, M. N., Dahal, N., Hasan, M. K., Manandhar, N. K., & Sharmin, S. (2025). Impact of activity types and speaking hours on spoken English fluency: A comparative study in Bangladeshi tertiary classes. Frontiers in Education, 10, 1639602. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1639602

Harmer, J. (1998). How to Teach English. Harlow: Longman.

He, F., & He, X. (2025). Core-competence educational policies versus the practical realities of rural area-based language teachers: Pathways to better policy implementation. SAGE Open, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251360144

Hughes, R. (2013). Teaching and researching speaking. Routledge.

Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1995). Handbook in Research and Evaluation. San Diego: EdITS Publishers.

Khromov, S. S., & Munakova, L. (2014). Intonation in the context of interlingual and intercultural communication. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 154, 412–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.10.182

Lai, Z. C.-C. (2025). Enhancing EFL oral proficiency through a ChatGPT-integrated BOPPPS learning framework. International Journal of Online Pedagogy and Course Design, 15(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJOPCD.383301

Latifah, U., Mulyono, H., Zulaiha, S., Adinul Falah, Z., Rosita, R. (2025). The impact of authentic materials on EFL learners’ speaking motivation and anxiety: A project-based learning approach. Discover Education, 4, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-025-00858-z

Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Luoma, S. (2004). Assessing speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511733017

Marashi, H., & Dadari, L. (2012). The impact of using task-based writing on EFL learners’ writing performance and creativity. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(12), 2500–2507. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.2.12.2500-2507  

Nation, I. S. P. (2008). Teaching vocabulary: Strategies and techniques. Pearson Education.

Nazara, S. (2011). Students’ perception of EFL speaking skill development. Journal of English Teaching, 1(1), 28–43.

Nguyen, L. T., & Newton, J. (2020). Pronunciation teaching in tertiary EFL classes: Vietnamese teachers’ beliefs and practices. TESL-EJ, 24(1), 1–30.

Nguyen, T. T. (2020). A case study of curriculum development: Backward or forward/central design? Ho Chi Minh City Open University Journal of Science, 10(1), 18–28. https://doi.org/10.46223/HCMCOUJS.soci.en.10.1.546.2020  

Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching & Learning. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Ontaneda Rea, S., & Roman, L. (2019). Implementing backward design to improve students’ academic performance in EFL classes. Espirales Revista Multidisciplinaria de Investigación, 3(24). https://doi.org/10.31876/re.v3i24.422

Phan, T. X., & Phuong, H. Y. (2017). Using an analytic rubric for speaking self-assessment: EFL students’ perceptions and challenges. IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education, 7(3), 34–39. https://doi.org/10.9790/7388-0703043439

Piaget, J. (1976). The Child and Reality: Problems of Genetic Psychology. London: Penguin Books.

Richard, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2002). Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667220

Richards, J. C. (2006). Communicative language teaching today. Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J. C. (2011). Competence and performance in language teaching. In Y. Wu, & L. Zhang (Eds.), Cultural construction and teacher development of foreign language teachers-papers presented at the third national symposium on foreign language teacher education and development (pp. 16-46). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Richards, J. C. (2013). Curriculum approaches in language teaching: Forward, central, and backward design. RELC Journal, 44(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688212473293

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.7202/1041847a

Segalowitz, N. (2010). Cognitive Bases of Second Language Fluency. In Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 203-227). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203851357

Shen, M., & Chiu, T. (2019). EFL learners’ English speaking difficulties and strategy use. Education and Linguistics Research, 5(2), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.5296/elr.v5i2.15333

Swain, M. (2005). The Output Hypothesis: Theory and Research. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning (pp. 495-508). Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410612700-38

Tam, M. (2000). Constructivism, instructional design, and technology: Implications for transforming distance learning. Educational Technology & Society, 3(2), 50-60.

Tejedor-García, C., Escudero, D., Delgado, S., & González-Ferreras, C. (2020). Assessing pronunciation improvement in students of English using a controlled computer-assisted pronunciation tool. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 13(2), 269–282. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2020.2980261

Thornbury, S. (2007). How to Teach Speaking. London: Pearson Education Limited.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design, expanded (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2011). The Understanding by Design guide to creating high-quality units. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA, USA.